RECEIVE LINK UPDATES VIA EMAIL
Crowder Publications
P.O. Box 62921 Phoenix, Arizona 85082-2921
Phone:602-957-3741
test
PERU HISTORY-
At Home in Lima, Peru, I go into my study every
day, open a volume of history, and lose myself in reflections about other ages.
At such times, I have studied and written about ancient Peru, impressed by the
arts and accomplishments of early cultures as well as the magnitude and grandeur
of the Inca Empire. – Eugenio Alarco – Peruvian historian
As Eugenio Alarco stated in the forward of Loren McIntyres book “The Incredible Incas”, one can lose themselves in the study of Peruvian history. Of any country in South America, it is Peru that congers up the soul to think of the past and the impact it has had on the present and will have on the future. In interviewing an expatriate for this book I asked him “What are some of the key elements of making an impression on your Peruvian hosts and what should one know in navigating through Peru’s complex culture?” His first response was curt, “learn the history”. I am in total agreement with this long term Peru resident. Having a basic knowledge of the history of Peru will magnify your experience and understanding of the Peruvian culture. Whether you will be spending two weeks or moving to Peru on assignment, Peru’s history, both ancient and recent is a remarkable subject and highly complicated. In fact, much of Peru’s ancient history is still being discovered, studied and cataloged. So, let us delve into the enchanting, bloody and mystical past of what many refer to Peru as the “Navel of the World”.
IT’S ALL IN THE NAME
One of the most fascinating things for me about travel are the names of places. Where did the name of the place come from? Who named it? What does it mean? Peru is no exception to having a name of which no one is quite sure where it came from as there are differing accounts and as you will see it most likely was named by accident in an almost comical mix-up of cultural and language differences between the Spanish and the natives of this mysterious land. In fact, when first reading the account below of the possible naming of Peru in the “Royal Commentaries of the Incas”, I thought of Abbott and Costello’s hilarious skit “Who’s on First?” In this infamous routine Abbott and Costello banter together in a state of confusion of trying to keep track of a baseball roster with names on it such as “Who, What and I Don’t Know”.
The Spanish first saw the seas that border modern Peru and Ecuador in
1513 by Vasco Núnez de Balboa. Then after beheading him, the governor of Panama
sent a group of ships south from Panama for initial intelligence gathering prior
to the move towards conquest. During this voyage the Spaniards observed an
Indian on shore and remember there were not interpreters at the time. They
devised a plan to capture him and placed him on board their ship which must
appeared to him as what we would describe as a UFO today. Imagine how you would
feel seeing the vessel passing before your very eyes with bearded men. During
their interview with the Indian they used sign language in an attempt to find
out what the area was called. And it is here that their efforts demonstrate the
problems with different cultures and language. The Indian could decipher they
were asking him something but he did not know what. In fear of not knowing what
they wanted to know he replied with his name of “Berú” and that he was on
the river (Pelu). The Spanish as many foreigners do believed the Indians
responses as if they were both conversing in Spanish. As Peru became the name
used by the Spanish for the territory from Ecuador to Chile, the indigenous
groups disdained it and would not use the name.
BEFORE THE INCA
Almost any one who has heard of Peru knows the fame of the Inca. However, there were numerous Indigenous groups prior to the existence of the Inca, which have contributed to the history of Peru. The Spanish paid very little attention to chronicling them since there were no written records. Much of the early history of Peru is still undiscovered and no doubt archaeologists will learn much more in the future. Peru’s early history is often left to hypothesis and is believed to have begun as long as ten thousand years ago as people of Asiatic descent crossed the Bearing Straight to what is now North America and on to what is now South America. There was no one single cohesive group and many tribes evolved in their quest for hunting and gathering food. Material items were few and tools were of a crude nature. Agriculture practices began around 3000 B.C. with such crops as squash, beans and peppers. Development in weavings, ceramics and metallurgy would appear at the time of Christ as well as irrigation practices. There were a number of cultures, which seemed to have stratified social levels and a socialistic leaning. Let us take a brief glimpse of six of the earliest culture of Peru.
The Chavín are one of the first known indigenous groups in Peru. Occupying the northern highlands and along the Pacific coast between 1000 and 200 BC they constructed an immense religious site which sets between the coastal, mountain and jungle region. The temple has numerous rooms with sculptures of deities and animals with feline characteristics. Maize and the potato were used as dietary staples. Pottery forms used both for ceremonial and religious functions and began to replace the gourd. Textiles were created primarily out of blue cotton and were usually weaved into rectangular shapes and were formed on a loom. Prior to cotton garments were made of pounded bark. The might llama was used both for transport and sacrifice.
Along the northern coastal region the Moche may have originated around the third to fourth century A.D. Authoritarian and aggressive in nature they have one of the best-documented histories through their intricate ceramics. They were responsible for engineering marvels with irrigation and the Inca would assimilate many of their skills. One of these waterworks in still in existence is called La Cumbre Canal. It starts at nearly four thousand feet and runs to sea level. They also worked with gold and built walled roads. Chicha, which is boiled corn, chewed and then spit out turning the enzymes into sugar and fermented into an alcoholic beverage was in wide use.
The Paracas culture, which existed from 400 B.C. to 400 A.D., settled along the southern coast, south of Lima. There is little known of this culture but many of their weavings survive due in part to the dryness of the desert. Mummification was also an integral part of their culture. The dead were often with woven clothes in a sitting position in underground chambers and covered with wood and sand.
Again using unique irrigation methods, the Nazca around 300 A.D. would bring the coastal deserts under their control by using underground aqueducts .
In what is now Bolivia and Chile the Tiahuancaco culture had significant impact in the region around 200 A.D. Operating in varied ecological zones they used terracing as a form of agriculture. It is near Lake Titicaca where the Sun Gate exists exhibiting puma and condor heads.
The Chimu culture was integrated into the Moche system around 1000 A.D. They also used highly polished ceramics. They were the masters of gold work and the Incas would use Chimus for the creation of artifacts in Cuzco. They also constructed a huge citadel, which named Chan Chan that covers six square miles just outside of present day Trujillo that may have had as many as several hundred thousand occupants. Experts at water supply they created huge reservoirs and aqueducts from the Moche River. There downfall was a result of the Inca cutting the water supply by destroying the aqueducts.
INCA DYNASTY – The First Conquerors
With our limited high school history we are taught or led to believe that the Spanish invaded South America and killed and wounded thousands of Indians. However, the region possessed an earlier conqueror of the people – the Inca. Without doubt the Inca was the first culture to encompass the territory between what is now northern Ecuador south to areas of present day Chile Bolivia and part of Argentina into a single political and economic system. The empire at its’ epoch stretched approximately 3,000 miles and would control most aspects of it’s subjects lives.
The founding of the Inca is greatly left up to speculation based on a series of four myths and legends. One story states that Viracocha who is known as the supreme being was a benevolent god who traveled among the many tribes inhabiting the region and instructed them on such things as government organization, agriculture and in the art of leading honorable lives. Another legend alludes to Viracocha was evolved from Lake Titicaca and that he created both heaven and earth. He then created the human race. Another legend speaks of four brothers and sisters who received a message from Viracocha stating they would one day be the conquerors and rulers of vast lands. They began to establish the empire, however, due to fighting among themselves only one brother survived, Manco Capac, who was the founder of the Inca. The third legend of their founding says the Sun God on the Island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca created Manco Capac and his sister. The Sun God provided them a rod made of gold. In search of a homeland they traveled north and upon entering the astoundingly beautiful valley of Cuzco. The golden specter was then thrown into the ground and disappeared and Cuzco was founded in 1250. The fourth myth of the Inca founding claims that the god Viracocha came from the waters at Lake Titicaca and was the creator of heaven and earth. He formed the human race; however, when men began to quarrel he turned them into stone. He then appeared again from the lake and also created the sun and moon. At this time he recreated the human race called the Inca and placed a supreme ruler over them.
Beginning in the thirteenth century as a relatively small tribe they would develop a hierarchical society with a powerful military that was ruthless in its acquisition of new territory and subjecting others to the Inca way. Historian Prescott described the Incas as a government that “..was mildest – but the most searching of despotisms”. The Inca was god and was situated in a great palace in Cuzco. He never wore the same clothes twice and it was not permitted to look him eye to eye. They created unique institution and techniques of control especially with a multiethnic empire. It is important to realize that the regionalism and caste system that is also evident in Peru’s society today have roots dating from the Inca. Another writer, Carlos Miró Quesada Laos, wrote in 1947 that Indians should not be considered “pacific egalitarians”. He believed the Inca elite were a very small group belonged and had the privilege by birth. The exception to entry if you were not in the bloodline was success as a warrior.
Between 1430 and 1471 Pachacutec would focus the structure of their society and their consolidation of power accelerated to expand the empire with a brutal military where subdivisions of authority were created ruled by officials who reported directly to the emperor. All conquered members were treated as members of a political unit. However, some tribes were never completely subjugated including the Chimú which were located in what is today Argentina and Chile. There were also other groups primarily in the Amazon region that could not be defeated by the Inca. In 1527 Huayna Capac, an emperor attempted to dominate the Jívaros in ferocious battles and was forced to retreat to the highlands. The typical patterns of conquest involved the army taking a province’s idol hostage and then return to Cuzco where it was held as hostage until the people came to understand that their god had no power to help them. Then the subjects would be more receptive to worshiping the Inca’s god, the Sun. The region’s leaders were then transported to Cuzco for indoctrination of the Inca ways demonstrating their genius for administration. However, they would often leave untouched the regions existing form of operations accept for the collection of tax to Inca. To diminish the chances of revolt numbers of people were resettled in different areas of the realm among loyalists. Religion was imposed through Inca overlord in their continued attempt to incorporating them into the hierarchy.
In the 15th and 16th century the population ballooned into the millions and numerous construction and social projects were instituted. All lands were the property of the Inca and controlled by the government. Subjects were required to perform a certain number of days labor under the local authorities, which was for the public good. Warehouses were constructed across the empire to store foods primarily for the military and permitted quick deployment of troops where needed. These fellows no doubt were logistics experts. And there expertise included the development of a highway system, which also contributed to the success of the Inca’s expansion. Pedro Cieza de León would write in 1548 concerning this monumental system: “ I believe since the history of man, there has been no other account of such grandeur as is to be seen on this road which passes over deep valleys and lofty mountains, by snowy heights, over falls of water, through the living rock and along the edges of tortuous torrents.” Running some 2,300 miles it was constructed with stone and reached widths of fifteen feet layered in stone. In areas where stone could not be laid such as desert, markers were placed to guide runners and the military. Over gorges cables made of vines constructed enormous suspension bridges. The road system allowed for an organized communication system to all parts of the empire. Messenger stations were posted along all routes where runners ran from one station to the next. This also allowed for the importation of fresh fish from the coast to the highlands. Signal fires were also used along mountain ranges.
Then in 1525 the Inca culture would become under increase duress and the
orderly succession of rulers ended. Emperor Huayna Capac in an attempt to bring
the empire under control divided the empire into northern and southern sections.
Huáscar the son of his wife was in charge of the southern region and Atahualpa
the son of Capac’s concubine given the northern region with headquarters in
Quito to administer. After Capac’s death Atahualpa coveted control of the
entire kingdom and controlled the largest segment of the Inca forces. Civil war
resulted for five years and resulted in the capture and later execution of Huáscar
after the Spanish had arrived.. Some believe that much of the regionalism
existing in present day and Peru and Ecuador along with the conflicts of both
countries were laid to see during this moment in time. However, on the horizon
loomed a power that the Inca could not reckon with and would end in a very short
time the grasp they had over a vast empire.
As with many historical topics, there are often different versions of
accounts. César Ferreira and Eduardo Dargent-Chamot, in their book “Culture
and Customs of Peru” (2003) layout five different aspects as to the
culmination of the Inca as a result of recent scholarly research. First, there
were religious issues as Cápac constructed a religious center near Quito, which
rivaled Cuzco. This caused a breaking of accord with Cuzco and lowered its
presence and prestige as the center of power. Second, political focus
diminished, as the powers of Cuzco and Quito would compete for the dominant role
in affairs. Third, after Cápac died of smallpox there was a succession problem
as to who was the rightful heir of the throne. Fourth, as the Inca
expanded there was substantial stress placed on the economics of
providing for the army. Furthermore, the beauracracy was strained due to growth
in terms of administering goods and services. Finally, because there were
greater demands placed on the ruling party they had difficulty in controlling
products and labor as well as their reciprocity requirements.
SOME INTRESTING ASPECTS OF INCA CULTURE
- They constructed towers to cast shadows for measuring solstices and determining the length of the solar year.
- They developed the Quipu or what is known as a system of counting and keeping records by using knots. One of the forms used is with a main cord with pendent cords attached in different colors. There was no written language.
- Foot amputations were quite common especially along the coast and believed to have been due to infections by sand fleas.
- Coca was commonly chewed especially during long work periods to help curb the appetite.
- Chicha was the national drink and is derived from maize and often used in festivals and consumed to intoxication.
- Criminal laws were minimal in this land of little material goods or land holdings. Adultery, murder, theft and blasphemy against the Sun were punishable by death.
THE CONQUISTADORS
At the same time the Inca were establishing their empire the Spaniards were also flexing their muscles in the western world as a new power, especially in the Caribbean region. It was as if they had a new found spirit after having expelled the Moors during nearly seven hundred years of intermittent war and had great ambition for material wealth and religious expansion. The zeal in which they approached new lands reminds me of the science fiction writer, Ray Bradbury’s quote “…so the history of exploration on earth is about harvesting rich loads.” The Spanish search for new frontiers and wealth may have also been spawned in part due to the printing press. Stories of chivalry and fantasy ignited the fire for exploit, grandeur, fame and honor.
Panama served as a central jumping off point for much of the exploration in Latin America for the Spanish. It is here where many of the stories about wealth in the southern hemisphere spread and started a lust for unlimited wealth. A number of preliminary excursions set out across the Isthmus of Panama including Vasco Núnez de Balboa with 190 men in 1513. While significant progress was not made rumors continued of the amount of wealth to be had for the men who were brave enough to face such difficult barriers. Little known before Pizarro’s attempts at conquest, Aleixo Garcia who was Portuguese was shipwrecked of the Atlantic Coast in 1516 and with some Spanish and 2000 Chiriguano Indians they made it as far inland into the Bolivian province of Charcas in the 1520’s and were rebuffed by the Incas. No doubt this was a sign to the Inca of what was to come. Francisco Pizarro along with two partners set out in 1524 and made there way to what is present day Colombia. The stiff winds along the coast made it difficult for progress to the south. Another expedition would entail in 1526 and this time Pizarro made it as far as present day Ecuador. There were problems and one of the partners, Almagro was sent back to Panama for more men and supplies. A number of the men were very disheartened about the situation and wanted to return to Panama. Almagro refused to take them and refused to take their mail back to Panama. However, a petition signed by many of the men wanting to return was smuggled inside a cotton ball with a verse that stated “So my lord governor bear this in mind: the scrounger’s gone to Panama and butcher’s stayed behind. The governor of Panama sent a judge and convoy to retrieve the conquerors. However, Pizarro wanting to know who remained loyal to him took his sword and drew a line in the sand and pointed towards Peru asking those who were loyal to him to continue in their hope of conquest. Only thirteen chose to remain. They would suffer great hardship and no shelter on “Rooster Island” until another ship returned with supplies.
They eventually returned to Panama with some gold and even a llama. Pizarro could not raise funds or support for another expedition and returned to Spain to establish backing. Charles I was impressed with some of the findings and granted Pizarro a license for his explorations. He was provided a salary that was to be drawn from the any wealth accumulated in their discoveries. He returned to Panama with his two half brothers and again for a third and perhaps final try headed to Peru in 1531 for gold and glory with 180 men, horses and cannons. He would engage a number of tribes and some resistance. However, he made it inland to Cajamarca and on November 15, 1532, found it deserted. Atahualpa, who had been warned of the white men remained in Cajamarca instead of returning to Cuzco and placed his 30,000 troops outside city in the hills. Pizarro sent a party of soldiers and horses, which the Inca had never seen before. Atahualpa agreed to meet with Pizarro the following day at which time he was taken prisoner after being transported on a golden throne and thousands of Indians were killed. There were no Spanish casualties and only Pizarro received a minor wound. He made an arrangement of providing a chamber (22 x 17) full of gold and silver in exchange for his release, which still stands to this day believing that the Spanish were primarily after what the Inca called “Tears of the Sun” for gold. It took several months to accumulate and without concern for the artistic beauty of the pieces, they were melted into bars for shipment back to Spain. Several estimates placed the value at the time between six and eight million dollars. The Spanish believed that Atahualpa was a liability alive and they charged him with several made up offenses and readied him to be burned to death. However, he was given the chance to convert to Christianity in exchange for ending his life by strangulation. This murder placed the empire into further mayhem. Then Pizarro left Cajamarca on August 11, 1533 and headed with his troops to the Inca capitol of Cuzco. They did find some resistance and several of the Spaniards were killed. They also discovered groups of people that despised the despotism of the Inca. The troops then invaded Cuzco exactly one year to the date after having taken Cajamarca. Pizarro knowing he needed allegiance of the Indians placed Manco Inca, a son of Huayna Capac, was pronounced as the Inca leader.
Pizarro was ruthless in his conquering and attempted to place a puppet Inca in control. However, the Spanish were fighting between themselves and Almagro, Pizarros old partner who had been upset with the original division of the spoils when they left Panama would soon find himself embroiled with Pizarro. He placed Almagro in charge of the southern provinces, which included Chile. Almagro would subsequently try to take Cuzco and after releasing one of the Pizarro brothers, they regrouped their troops and defeated Almagro and was tried for treason and strangled to death.
COLONIAL PERIOD
The colonial period continued to be harsh and dangerous for its inhabitants and opened up the floodgates for the incoming Spanish that were after wealth. Because of the infighting among the contingents of Pizarroists and Almagrstitas Spain sent a representative to help regain control. However, further civil unrest resulted. A set of proclamations by the Crown set into place the “New Laws” in 1542 to help establish royal control and to end the abuses of the Indians. This would lead to the placement of a Viceroy in 1544 whose primary responsibility was to the Crown and to enforce legislation.
The second Viceroy sent to Peru was Francisco Toledo y Figueroa who had some success in restoring order and countering corruption. However, the Spanish population was indignant against the control form Spain and general chaos continued as well as continued scattered revolts by the Indians. Toledo was a harsh and efficient administrator who made a sweeping tour of the empire and instituted numerous plans in which to place the Spanish in complete control. One of his methods was by taking Indians from the mountains and settling them in villages and providing lessons in moral behavior. This process was very similar to what the Incas had used in moving people from newly conquered areas and placing them in groups where there were loyalists and instructing them in the Inca way. He also formed an army to put down Tupa Amaru, in one of the last strongholds of the Indians in Vilcabamba. After capturing him he was beheaded in front of thousands of Indians in the main square of Cuzco. One of the positive things Toledo instituted were improved mining techonology. However, it was for the express purpose of improving the Crown’s pocket book.
CASTE SYTEM
One of the most interesting aspects of Peruvian history is the caste system, which the Inca also possessed. The Spanish instituted a stratified social ranking, which was basically based on skin color during the colonial period. In many respects this system remain apparent in modern Peruvian times.
BLACKS
Blacks not being considered human by many were on the lower echelon of society serving as slaves. They played an integral part in the conquering and development of Peru and during this period were considered with higher regard by the Spanish than the indigenous groups. James Lockhart in his book “Spanish Peru 1532-1560, A Social History” (1994) states “Whenever the Spaniards prepared for an expedition against Indians, they brought three things: arms, horses, and blacks”
INDIANS
Usually attached to large haciendas (plantations) or mining operations they provided most of the labor in colonial Peru. The Church made efforts to teach them to read and convert them to Catholicism.
MESTIZOS
Having very little access to positions of power or prestige the mestizos or mixed bloods made up a number of shopkeepers, tradesmen and overseers. Mestizos were primarily fathered by a Spaniard and an Indian mother.
CRIOLLOS
The criollos were individuals of direct Spanish descent and officially had the same rights as the Spaniards. However, it was the Spaniards who received the best positions and the favor of the courts. In fact, the two groups were often at odds with each other and it is the criollos that comprised the impetus for succession from Spain. Most of their wealth was attained through land holdings and intermarriage.
SPANIARDS
The Spaniards clearly held he highest ring on the social ladder in Peru. They were referred to as peninsulares. Of the approximately 1000 Spanish at the time they had disdain for manual labor and believed the Indian existed to do their work. The upper classes still have a disdain for work with their hands and it is seen as being below their station in life.
Because of the lack of Spanish women early on many of the Spaniards
married with Indian women. Many of these children would never attain social
ranking and would be regulated to managing groups of Indian laborers.
INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAIN
There is no question that the criollos were not happy with the situation in Peru and how they were treated by Spain. The seeds for independence clearly began in the sixteenth century. During King Charles the III’s reign he decreased some of the restraints that had been placed on trade and there was some time of prosperity. He also expelled the Jesuits who in their own right had acquired substantial wealth and land holdings. Selden Rodman in his book “The Peru Traveler” (1967), explained “The empire-within-an-empire created by these thrifty, industrious priests was astonishing-and frightening to their slothful, corrupt rivals of Church and state.” They were a highly organized and held great integrity. They would inevitably irk the large landholders, thus causing their demise for a time.
The quest for independence was born of idealists who decided they wanted freedom and to have more control over their own destinies. However, while they were ready to drive out Spain they never seemed to quite have the make up to succeed. Simon Bolívar the “Great Liberator” wrote in a letter dated September 6, 1815, “I imagine that in Lima the rich will not tolerate democracy, nor will the freed slaves and pardos accept aristocracy. He also addresses the issue of geography and cultural differences in making it difficult for the continent to form one country in the same letter where he states, “It is a grandiose idea o think of consolidating the New World into a single nation, united by pacts into a single bond”.
Charles the III, attempted in implementing a new economic system, which was disastorous and the Viceroys, believed their power was being reduced. Nevertheless, these new systems could not be put in place due to his death and looming in the forefront was Napoleon Bonaparte who forced Charles IV and Charles VII to exit the throne, which placed Peru in further disarray.
San Martín had liberated Argentina and Chile and by 1820 he had entered
the port of Pisco .. A visiting U.S. naval officer sent a letter to the U.S.
press in August of 1820 exclaiming, “The grand Chilian expedition against
Peru, under San Martín, commanding the land forces, and Cocharne, the naval
force, left this port on the 26th, having taken on board the
remainder of the troops destined to acat against Lima. I am rather doubtful of
their success, as the Royalists are strong in force, and have had plenty of time
to discipline their troops.” On July 28, 1821, San Martín, declared Peru’s
independence. San Martín met with fellow liberator, Simón Bolívar in
Guayaquil, to discuss the future of Peru
and the region. Martín and Bolívar had differences as to what they thought
should happen.Martzin believed that Peru should be ruled as a monarchy. Bolívar
felt that there should be an authoritarian head of state should rule with
Napoleonic-style of government. What prevailed was a republican government with
both philosophies from the French and U.S. revolutions. San Martín decided to
return to Argentina and Bolívar would continue the work of establishing Peru.
Peru would finally defeat the Spanish in totality on December 9, 1824, in
Ayacucho. The newly placed Peruvian government had so many problems that the
military would basically take over the government starting a long line of
military dictators known as caudillos.
A NEW COUNTRY
After independence was declared and Bolívar left Peru in 1826 it was as if a bottle of champagne had been opened and sprayed all over the wall. Numbers of individuals were vying for power of which most had come from the military. From 1826 until 1865, there were thirty-four presidents. Musical chairs, anyone? No one seemed strong enough or had enough central support to make a go of it. Factions continued to fight each other and regionalism became more of a factor as violence continued. Territorial disputes abounded of which have plagued the region throughout its history. The country seemed to maze through time as an river not defining any particular course. That is, until a very unglamorous product brought Peru to the world market via bird droppings. These droppings, which had been piling up on the islands just off of Peru and along the coast would become a boon to Peru. Used for fertilizer, there were vast markets in Europe wanting the dung. This paved the way for the formation of a banking system and the ability to borrow on the open market Guano was often used to secure debt on future income.
THE MEIGGS FACTOR
If you are visiting Peru as almost any other country you no doubt will hear about a foreigner who arrived in the country penniless and made good by his or her own ingenuity. Such is the case of Henry Meiggs from the United States. Several books have been written about him and most books about Peru mention him. This is one interesting fellow who literally changed the landscape of Peru as the Porsmouth Herald in 1900 described his work as “an amazing feat of financial wizardry”. During the gold rush in California he had become a millionaire and was at the top of social society. However, owing numerous properties he was caught in a cash crunch and in October 1854 he disappeared even owing money to his laundress let alone his business debts. No one knew what happened to him. However, even in those days rumors began a few years later about a huge speculator that was making a killing in the transportation business in South America. Henry Meiggs had gone to Chile where he was successful in some engineering projects and then left for Peru. He then took on the landscape and told reporters that “Anywhere the llama goes I’ll take a train. At a cost of $200,000 a mile he built one route over the Andes at a height of over 15,000 feet with over twenty switchbacks in which 7,500 men died. He was a friendly terms with the president of Peru and encouraged democracy. Considered an organizational genius and working non-stop, he passed away in 1877 from exhaustion. One of the really interesting aspects of Meiggs was that he eventually paid off all his debts in California and never returned there. The Newark Daily Advocate in 1854 published a story of how he paid back one of debts. One day a young man entered Tiffany’s in New York and happened to see a beautiful order of silverware which had been sold to Mr. Meiggs. When the son went home he told his parents about the order and mentioned the Meiggs name and said he would have like to have purchased the silver set for his parents. The father replied that he could have bought it had Meiggs paid him the money he owed. The son got a copy of the note owed to his father and mailed it to Meiggs who then made good on the debt. No doubt, Meiggs was an honorable man.
WAR WITH CHILE
It seems no matter what someone has, somebody else covets it and believes they should have it. This one bit of human nature repeats itself throughout Peru’s history. With tremendous growth due to guano in Peru along with nitrites in Bolivia, Chile believed they had rights to it. In 1879 Bolivia had some deep concerns as to Chile’s interest and entered into a military pact with Peru. Peru became embroiled in the dispute between 1879 and 1883 and was shaken to its knees both economically and socially. No doubt Peru has great hostility in general for Chile to date, which will be demonstrated later in this book. Thousands were killed and the infrastructure was shattered. At one point the Chilean military occupied Lima, which created great poverty as they were cut off from the interior. Once peace was determined emigration continued from Lima. After the war, Peru ceded some of its land to Chile as Bolivia did and lost its outlet to the sea. This matter is still hotly debated and efforts are still being made by Bolivia to regain its port.
20th CENTURY
While unrest had been prevalent throughout Peru’s history, for the most part, the mass of population had been passive and somewhat resistant to change. In the early 20th century migration patters changed significantly and hordes began to arrive from small rural areas to larger cities and in particular Lima. Further economic development would continue in commercial, mining and agricultural sectors. There was also the embryo of a middle class with increases in wealth. Also, unions would make headway. The oligarchy continued to run politics in part due to keeping out large segments of the population from voting by having literacy requirements. President Leguía who ran the country as a dictator did help restore Peru’s credit in the world markets and started large public works efforts and provided for the Indigenous population to become full citizens. He was forced to resign in 1929 due to the depression, which severely hampered Peru which was highly aligned with the U.S. economy. In this instance the military took control as it has done often throughout Peru’s modern history.
Peru would have a number of border disputes, primarily with Colombia and Ecuador. In 1941, with the breakdown of negotiations, Peru amassed 11,000 troops against 1,800 Ecuadorian soldiers and for the first time in south America, the Peruvians used paratroopers. Ecuador could not defend itself as the Peruvian military occupied a number of key areas in the southern provinces. At the negotiation table in 1942 in Brazil, Ecuador ceded in what is known as the Protocol of Río de Janeiro, more than half of Ecuadorian territories. While a number of countries guaranteed the border, this issue would erupt in both militaries fighting twice in the 1980’s and 1990’s. I was present in Ecuador during both incidences and can that both sides have extremely strong feelings about the border and that these feelings of regionalisms have been around for centuries. On the positive, Peru and Ecuador have signed new agreements and in the late 1990’s and early 21st century, both countries appear to be making mutual progress as neighbors.
In 1968, the military again prompted a coup. General, Juan Velasco Alvarado, would take over the country’s oil and mining operations and basically kicked out the foreign operators. However, he also shook up the oligarchy by taking away their land holdings and having them placed as cooperatives. While the masses applauded these actions it created great reduction in agricultural productivity and further financial pressure. Velasco himself, was kicked out by other military officers. It would by 1980 before civilian rule would be instituted. President Alan García would not have any better luck in curbing inflation or improving the economy and stepped down in 1990.
1990’s AND BEYOND
1990 was a pivotal year for Peru. Suffering from a horrific financial situation and battling terrorists, it was shaking at the knees. Peru turned on a dime by electing an outsider in Alberto Fujimori, whose parents emigrated from Japan. It was as if he came out of know where and with the nickname “El Chino”, made promises especially to the indigenous groups of work and honesty. He faces a formable foe in Mario Vargas Llosa, the famous Peruvian novelist. The problem with Vargas Llosa was he was viewed by many as being part of the oligarchs and of having neo-liberal philosophies. In reality when Fujimori took office he placed into operation many of the same programs that Vargas Llosa had spoken of.
Fujimori entered an arena of little assistance from the congress and in 1992 he dissolved the parliament and allied with the military. He devalued the currency, which wrecked further havoc with the poor. A technocrat by nature he took stiff measures while maintaining his popularity. His most notorious achievement was in taking a strong approach with the local terrorist groups. In 1995, he was reelected, and his relationship with the military grew even stronger. He would develop a close relationship with Vladimiro Montesinos, who was his chief of intelligence who was the mastermind behind the Colina gropu which was responsible for a number of deaths and corruptive practices.
Fujimori had the laws changed allowing him to run for another term of president, and again, Peru made another turn. Alejandro Toledo almost like Fujimori seemed to come out of nowhere. In the 2000 elections in which Toledo withdrew, Fujimori would win by fraud. Again Peru would go through a crisis and after videos were made public of his chief of intelligence taking bribes, Fujimori was forced out of office and went into exile in Japan. Another president was appointed and Toledo won the presidency in June of 2001, again making proclamations to the poor as so many candidates have done in the past. Toledo’s party, known as, “Perú Posible”, he promised almost everything to everybody and for the most part demonstrated poor organizational skills. He has had his detractors with accusations of favoritism, having an illegitimate daughter. And, Peru continues to wrestle with the past of Fujimori as prosecutors wrestle with trying to have him extradited from Japan and are attempting to have him serve a thirty year sentence. Futhermore, Peru is attempting to come to grips with the terrorism of the 1980’s and 1990’s where at least 30,000 people lost their lives at the hands of the guerillas and military.
Peru has had a difficult history in identifying itself continues to maintain a highly stratified society in which only a few benefit from the tremendous wealth that exists in this Andean country. It seems to this author that much of Peru’s past is an indicator of its future. As my favorite television psychologist, Dr. Phil McGraw is often quoted, “Past behavior often predicts future behavior”. That is, until the individual or in this case a country, decides to change. Is Peru ready for a change that benefits the masses? We shall see in the coming years.
By Nicholas Crowder / copyright 2004/ May not be retransmitted or copied
without prior written consent. Furthermore, it may not be used for commercial
purposes without prior written consent from Nicholas Crowder - crowdpub@mindspring.com